Baruch de Spinoza

As he grew older he became increasingly critical of literal interpretations of the Bible and strict Jewish traditions. Spinoza’s views led to his expulsion from the Jewish community. He became a rationalist philosopher who did not believe in miracles or a personified God that could issue punishments and rewards. He saw God manifested in everything around us, including nature and humanity itself. Many people found his ideas shocking and dangerous, but Spinoza continued to advocate tolerance and freedom of expression. Although he received little recognition in his lifetime, he is now considered one of the Western world’s most influential philosophers. Spinoza’s ideas about tolerance are still relevant today.